Food Security Bill Essay Example for Free

Food Security Bill Essay The bill was truncated from the NAC version at the first stage when the government finalized it and then the parliamentary standing committee went along similar lines and recommended further paring down of the benefits. Sources said concerns were raised by the Congress leadership about reducing existing benefits under the Antodaya Anna Yojana to the 2. 5 crore poorest families as well as the recommendation of the standing committee to remove the Integrated Child Development Scheme (ICDS) from the mandate of the bill, which was advised by the women and child development ministry. Sources said the party leadership was unhappy with the move to reduce existing entitlements under UPAs flagship scheme instead of providing larger benefits. The government is likely to revise the bill keeping these views in mind and look at a much higher coverage in at least the 250 poorest districts of the country. The standing committee had recommended providing 5 kg of rations per person to 75% of rural population and 50% of urban India a formula the government was happy with till the party leadership intervened. The standing committee had recommended doing away with two categories of beneficiaries with differential benefits a move the government had contemplated anyway after having sent the bill to Parliament. But curtailing the total number of beneficiaries and reducing the benefits to the poorest has not found acceptance with the party leadership, sources said. The government could now consider restoring the monthly allocation to the poorest back to 35 kg of rations per family. Under an apex court order, the poorest and most disadvantaged are provided 35 kg rations at present. With the party keen to see the bill in Parliament during the budget session, a revised version could see the ICDS scheme coming back under the purview of the bill as a legally guaranteed right along with other food delivery mechanisms such as community kitchens. The UPA has already been caught on the back foot with opposition-ruled states providing cheaper rations to greater numbers under their own schemes following the lead of Chhattisgarh. The delay in pushing the bill through, coupled with the constant and often publicly expressed differences between different arms of the government and the UPA on the shape of the legislation have taken the sheen off UPA-2s big ticket scheme Food Security Bill is affordable The subsidies meant for the poor are always under attack, while the rest are able to retain their privileges. The additional allocation in grain and money terms will neither distort the grain market nor place a burden on the fisc. Many recent commentators have portrayed the National Food Security Bill (NFSB) as an â€Å"unbearable burden† on the exchequer. The facts, however, do no substantiate the claim. The NFSB has been trashed from time to time in the English dailies. For instance, Business Line (March 21, 2013) published an article titled â€Å"Food Security Bill will torpedo Budget†. Another national daily claims that the Bill has a â€Å"fundamental flaw† that places â€Å"an unbearable burden† and â€Å"distorts agriculture† (Indian Express, March 19, 2013). Quite often, the claims are partly due to a misconception that the government is making new financial and grain commitments under the NFSB. In fact, the NFSB does little more than turning into legal entitlements pre-existing food security schemes such as the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) Scheme, Mid-Day Meal (MDM) Scheme, Public Distribution System (PDS) and maternity entitlements. Some commentators have said that it is precisely the legal commitment that will lead to problems in the future — for example, the fear of the emergence of a government monopoly in the grain market. This fear is not borne out by the facts. Under the PDS, ICDS and MDM, the government currently allocates about 58 million tonnes of grain. To meet this commitment, the government currently procures about 30 per cent of grain. The NFSB commits 62 million tonnes, i. e. , an additional 4 million tonnes. The Budget of 2013-14 allocates Rs. 31,000 crore for two childrens food schemes — school meals and the ICDS which reaches children under six. The Budget allocation for the food subsidy in 2013-14 is Rs 90,000 crore. According to our estimates, the food subsidy will increase from Rs 80,000 crore (in 2012-13) to Rs 1,11,221 crore, under the NFSB. Thus, the NFSB implies an increase of just over Rs 30,000 crores in financial terms and 4 million tonnes in real (grain) terms. Can India afford this? Speaking at a panel discussion at IIT Delhi in February, Deputy Chairperson of the Planning Commission, Montek Singh Ahluwalia, said â€Å"it would be dishonest† to say that we cannot afford the Food Bill, and that the subsidies that we need to target are those enjoyed by the middle classes (e. g. , fuel). Speaking at the same discussion, Amartya Sen made a pertinent point — that the reason why it is more difficult to reduce subsidies enjoyed by the middle classes (fuels such as LPG, petrol and diesel) is that the beneficiaries of those are more vocal than the rural poor or children under six who benefit from the food subsidies. This point is well illustrated by the events following last years Budget. The Budget 2012-13 announced a 1 per cent excise duty on unbranded jewellery and doubled custom duty on gold to 4 per cent. Gold is the countrys second biggest import, after crude oil. This burden on the current account deficit was an important reason for doubling the customs duty. Following this, the All India Gems and Jewellery Trade Federation and others initiated a strike which went on for 21 days. They argued that the industry, including the â€Å"large† number of people it employs, and buyers of gold, would suffer. A massive media campaign was launched, following which the Finance Minister withdrew the excise duty. According to the revenue foregone statement presented along with the Budget 2013-14, the revenue foregone from the gold and diamond industry for the previous financial year was Rs. 5,000 crore. Such tax breaks are often justified on the grounds of the employment potential of the gems and jewellery industry. According to Invest India, a website of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, â€Å"The sector provides employment to around 1. 8 million people. In the next five years, the sector is expected to create additional employment for around 1. 1 million people. † According to the National Sample Survey Organisation, 2009-10, the size of the Indian workforce is between 430-471 million persons. If the gems and jewellery industry employs 3 million people as per the Ministrys target, this would be 0. per cent of the workforce. An industry that employs less than one per cent of the Indian workforce is currently enjoying tax benefits amounting to Rs 65,000 crore (nearly 20 per cent of all revenue foregone). The Food Bill will benefit 67 per cent of the population at an additional cost of Rs 30,000 crore, yet it is said that it will â€Å"torpedo† the Budget. If anything, the NFSB does not go far enough. The NFSB tabled in Parliament in December 2011 included special provisions for the destitute and other vulnerable groups (e. g. , community kitchens and social security pensions). These have been discarded in the version cleared by Cabinet on March 19, 2013. In many rural areas, the Block is already too far to go to complain, yet for violations of rights under the NFSB, grievance redressal only begins at the District level. Viewed in this comparative perspective (for example, it is approximately 1 per cent of the GDP), few can question the affordability or desirability of the NFSB. In absolute terms it is not a small amount. One might argue whether such expenditure is worth it, given the â€Å"fact† that the programmes in its ambit, for example, the PDS, are â€Å"dysfunctional† (Indian Express, March 19, 2013). However, recent data from the National Sample Survey of 2004-05 and 2009-10 suggest that while the functioning of the PDS is far from perfect, we do need to update our â€Å"facts†. In joint research with Jean Dreze, we show that the implicit subsidy from the PDS eliminates 18 per cent (14 per cent) of the â€Å"poverty gap† — or the difference between the poverty line level of income and the median income (or monthly per capita consumption expenditure) of poor households — among poor rural (urban) households. Again, there are marked inter-State contrasts — in Tamil Nadu the corresponding figure is 60 per cent and in Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh it is nearly 40 per cent. The real question then is not whether India can afford to have a right to food but as the Food Minister said in a recent interview, â€Å"Can we afford not to? † Food as a right In its latest form, the National Food Security Bill, 2013 promises to address the extreme irony of an ambitious nation holding mountains of food in storage, while masses of its people are undernourished or even starving. The right to food is finally on the threshold of being legislated. Every step taken to widen the coverage of food security schemes is an advance. Yet, the empirical truth is that incremental measures at targeting the needy are a poor substitute for a cohesive, rights-based universal system of food entitlements. There are, no doubt, many positives to the new legislation, such as coverage of up to 75 per cent of eligible priority households in rural areas, the importance given to women as the head of the household for issue of ration cards, inclusion of pregnant and lactating women for free meals (some in government wanted to take away this entitlement from women ho bear more than two children but the idea was sensibly dropped), and setting up of State Food Commissions to investigate violations of entitlements. Under the proposed law, it will be up to the States to frame criteria and choose the priority households for food entitlements, an exercise that will inevitably be accompanied by the well-documented troubles associated with targeting any welfare scheme. Exclusion of any deserving household is unfair and divisive. It poses a challenge to States that wish to provide universal access, an issue that is bound to be felt acutely in urban areas attracting tens of thousands of migrant labourers. The Centre is unwilling to countenance a Universal Public Distribution System on the ground that too much money is involved. Even under the latest Bill, it is argued, the exchequer would have to bear a heavy expenditure of Rs. 1. 24 lakh crore. Yet, the government has not hesitated to build up expensive food stocks over the years, some of which is left to rot, mainly to pay the high support prices demanded by influential sections of the farm lobby. Moreover, the policy orientation is disproportionately favourable towards some sectors such as infrastructure, compared to food and health care. Evidently, the Food Bill can and should do a lot more, to become near-universal and win over sceptics such as Tamil Nadu, which has opposed it on the ground that it is inferior to the universal PDS in the State. Also noteworthy is the fact that the Chhattisgarh Food Security Act has done better than the Centre’s proposed law in some respects — by supplying subsidised pulses and covering 90 per cent of households, for example.

Comparison Between Air And Rail Transport Engineering Essay

Comparison Between Air And Rail Transport Engineering Essay Introduction According to the World Energy Council (WEC, 2011), transport sector global energy consumption in 2010 was almost 2,200 million tons of oil equivalent (MTOE), representing about 19% of world energy resources. Currently, more than 96% of total energy supply to transport comes from oil (WEF, 2011); in 2010, around 60% of oil production worldwide was consumed by the transport sector (IEA, 2012). In particular, transport accounted for 38% of total energy consumption in the UK in 2011 (DECC, 2012), and for 27.8% in the U.S. the same year (EERE, 2012). Carbon emissions are closely related to energy consumption in the transport sector and in 2010 it accounted for about 23% of global levels of CO2 emissions (WEC, 211). Economic development and population growth are increasing the energy consumption of transport (WEC, 2011); however dependence on oil supplies, inefficient use of resources and associated CO2 emissions make the growth of this sector a completely unsustainable process (WEF, 2011). It is necessary to evaluate the energy efficiency of transport sector and improve its processes through technology and practice in order to achieve world sustainable development goals. The purpose of this report is to evaluate and compare air and rail transport, in terms of their relative use of energy and their CO2 emissions, and also consider the potential strategies to improve the energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions from these modes of transport. Air transport is the fastest-growing mode of transport (WEF, 2011) and it is considered to be, after diesel engine cars, the most contaminating one (Chapman, 2007) and rail transport is commonly referred to as the cleanest alternative. Definitions It is convenient to clarify some concepts in order to have a more precise comprehension of how energy use and energy efficiency are measured in the transport sector, before the analysis of air and rail transport. Energy efficiency is defined as the relationship between the energy consumed and the output produced by that energy (EEDO, 2012: 19). When efficiency is higher, more products or services can be produced with the same amount energy. This information is useful when comparing similar technologies or processes; however, air and rail transport are different technologies that consume energy in different ways to produce the same service, so it is more practical to compare them in terms of energy intensity (EERE, 2012a), which is essentially the inverse of energy efficiency and in transport is the amount of energy required to move one passenger over 1 kilometer, or passenger-km (NRC, 2011). For freight transport energy intensity would be energy per ton-km, but this report will focus on passenger transport to reduce the number of variables in intensity calculation and simplify the comparison. Use of energy As illustrated in Fig 1., road transport is responsible for the majority of total transport energy consumption in 2010, around 76%, while air transport accounted for about 10% of the total and rail transport for 3% approximately (WEF, 2011). Fig. 1. 2010 Transport energy consumption by mode (total ~2,200 MTOE) (WEF, 2011) These percentages represent the absolute values of air and rail transport energy use with respect to total consumption. In order to compare them with respect to each other, it is necessary to analyze first where they take energy from and how each mode of transport invest the energy to be able to move and transport people, in this case, from one location to another. Currently, rail transport energy supply comes mainly from diesel (88%) and electricity (12%) (IEA, 2008). Due to the low resistance of rail vehicles on railways (steel on steel) and high efficiencies of electric and diesel engines, diesel engine efficiency is around 45% (Beggs, 2009), rail transport presents a potential advantage over other modes of transport, but the determinant aspects on rail passenger transport efficiency are the services on board, the technology, the speed of the train and the occupancy (Fraser J., et al 1995). Aerodynamic trains can be very energy efficient compared to previous model, however, when their speed increases over 200 km/h, energy consumption also increases significantly due to air drag (Beggs, 2009). As passenger trains can weight up to 90 tons, the energy efficiency of an empty train is almost the same as if it is full. Intensity increases [kJ/p-km] as number of passenger decrease; therefore energy efficiency is very related to occupancy rates (Fraser J., et al 1995). Fuel accounts for 20% of modern aircraft total operating costs; therefore fuel consumption reduction is a priority for aircraft and engine manufacturers to increase energy efficiency (Kahn S., et al 2007). Similarly to trains, aircrafts need to use energy to overcome the air drag force, but, unlike trains, planes also consume energy standing up (Mackay 2008). Studying the relative energy consumption per seat, for a London to Edinburgh journey with different occupancy rates, Kemp (2004) as cited by Beggs (2009), found that rail transport is indeed more efficient than air transport. However, this statement is not true when it applies to rail vehicles travelling at 350 km/h or more, where it consumes slightly more energy than the aircraft, as illustrated in Fig. 2. Fig. 2. Energy consumed by various modes of transport from London to Edinburgh (Beggs, 2011). Carbon emissions In the transport sector CO2 emissions are closely related to energy consumption. CO2 emissions from air transport will vary depending on technology, occupancy rat and route (DTF, 2011), although aircrafts produce other greenhouse gases apart from CO2 such as water , ozone and nitrousà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨oxides (Mackay 2008). The following figure, Fig 3., presents CO2 emissions per passenger-km and per mode of transport in Europe. Rail transport is the second less polluting mode of transport and according to the European Environment Agency (EEA, 2011), shifting from diesel to electric trains has decreased the carbon emissions of rail transport by about 27 % from 1995 to 2009. CO2 emissions of air transport have also decreased by 29% due to aircraft technologies improvements and higher occupancy rates. Fig. 3. Specific CO2 emissions per passenger-km and per mode of transport in Europe, 1995-2009 (EEA, 2011) Potential improvements Energy efficiencies of air transport can be improved by reducing fuel consumption through aircraft technology improvements, infrastructure improvements, operations improvements and use of biofuels (WEF, 2011). Reducing weight and drag are some of the objectives, although according to Mackay (2008: 35) no redesign of a planeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¨is going to radically improve its efficiency. Regarding rail transport, again, it is important to reduce weight and aerodynamic resistance improving trains infrastructure to reduce energy consumption and carbon emissions. Also, higher efficiency propulsion system and better regenerative brake mechanisms are some of the potential improvements (Kahn et al, 2007). Conclusions This report intended to present a general view of the relationship between transport sector and global energy, focusing on a comparison between air and rail transport modes in terms of their use of energy and their CO2 emissions, based mainly on global official energy agencies and organizations. It was found that rail transport appears to use energy more efficiency than air transport, as well as lower CO2 emissions. However, rail vehicles speed and occupancy rates are determinant aspects when evaluating energy efficiency and carbon emissions. In order to evaluate appropriately the energy efficiency of modes of transport and present reliable results, it is necessary to consider all the energy system inputs and outputs. With appropriate practices and technology developments it is possible to achieve higher transport efficiencies and decrease the environmental impact of the transport sector.

Defences Against Pathogenic Organisms

Defences Against Pathogenic Organisms Bacteria Defined in the dictionary as ‘a bacterium, virus, or other microorganism that can cause disease. Which can then be divided into different categories, bacterium, virus, fungus and finally protozoa. Bacteria can be in the form of many sizes and can cause such things as cholera and typhoid fever. The virus type of pathogens are much smaller than bacteria and have a ‘fragment of genetic material inside a protective protein coat’. They are also especially common of causing influenza. Fungi can look like mould and can cause such things like athlete’s foot. Protozoa can come in the form of contaminated food and some are parasites. They are organisms that live in or on, certain things. A very serious example of this type, is malaria. Features Virus Bacteria Fungus Protozoa Nutrition Do not have or need nutrition and do not eat anything Mostly are heterotrophic, which means they live from and off other organisms. Also ‘At an elementary level, the nutritional requirements of a bacterium such as E. coli are revealed by the cells elemental composition’. Absorbs nutrients like carbohydrates (glucose, fructose, xylose, sucrose) and also starches, cellulose, hemicelluloses and proteins. Require organic materials ‘which may be particulate or in solution’. They are holozoic. Reproduction Rely on host cells for the ‘machinery needed to survive and reproduce.’ Once finding a host, it then looks for host cells to take over and ‘slowly implants its genetic makeup into the cell.’ Reproduce by the process binary fission. Where the cells split into and divides into 2 identical daughter cells and ‘When conditions are favourable such as the right temperature and nutrients are available, some bacteria like Escherichia coli can divide every 20 minutes’. Environmental conditions can influence how this happens and usually sexual or asexual reproduction are the main methods. Some yeasts and funguses thrive in warm environments, and can multiply at an extremely fast pace. Also may be a sexual, and also reproduction by binary fission is very common here. Structure Their structure consists of a strand of nucleic acid, which is either DNA or RNA. Then it has something called a ‘capsid’ which is a protective protein coat. Bacteria have a cell wall with no nucleus and have two types of DNA- plasmid and chromosomal. Some are unicellular but most are multicellular which have cell walls and they are made of chitin. Single celled organisms that have a cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm and vacuole. Sources used Bbc bitesize . (2015). Whats in a cell?. Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_edexcel/cells/cells1.shtml. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Chris Sherwood . (2015). How Do Viruses Reproduce?. Available: http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4567511_viruses-reproduce.html. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Constantine John Alexopoulos . (2015). Fungus . Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/222357/fungus/57967/Nutrition. Last accessed 17th march 2015. G gingham. (2014). Bacteria. Available: http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/introducing-microbes/bacteria. Last accessed 17th march 2015 Kenneth Todar. (2014). Nutrition and Growth of Bacteria. Available: http://textbookofbacteriology.net/nutgro.html. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Robert G Yaeger . (2015). Protozoa . Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8325/. Last accessed 17th march 2015. How does the body defend itself against pathogens which cause infectious disease? Pathogens can enter the body by ‘route of transmission’. People can pick up a pathogen by person to person contact with touch, saliva and contaminated blood or bodily fluids. Pathogens can also be transmitted through foods, water, insects and fomites. Food can be contaminated by unclean hands, unclean utensils, and is cross contaminated. Water can be contaminated by human or animal faeces which spreads the infection when drank, and insects can also carry a pathogen for example malaria. Lastly fomites are actually non-living but can spread pathogens by way of bedding, toys and wire for example. A common one is also athlete’s foot. Airborne pathogens enter through the nose and mouth of the body as you breathe, and food pathogens enter through your mouth and then into the digestive system. Also they can also enter into the blood stream through ‘vectors’ which is transmitted by mosquitos, fleas, ticks and contaminated needles. Breaks in the skin are also ways of entering. From the outside of the body the physical defences and barriers we have to help us are the skin which is a physical barrier, clotting which if skin is broken the blood clots to stop any entering, sebaceous and sweet glands that produce chemicals that kill bacteria, lysozyme which is in saliva and tears that kills bacteria, mucous membranes which secretes mucous and traps pathogens, nasal hairs that remove the organisms from the air, cilia force mucus to the pharynx for swallowing, hydrochloric acid kills microorganisms, and the vagina produces lactic acid which stops growth of pathogens and has a low ph and mucous membranes that kill bacteria. If the physical barriers cannot defend against pathogens, then a ‘second defence line’ takes over which is a general defence system. Phagocytes that are white blood cells engulf pathogens and macrophages which are a longer living phagocytes help digest the bacteria and protect the body. Substances that are produced by other proteins called complement defence proteins can help fight pathogens, and are produced in response to knowing the presence of foreign materials in the body and ‘burst or engulf the pathogen.’ Also interferons are proteins that help prevent spread of the virus, and inflammation are infected cells that produce a chemical histamine, and help more white blood cells get to the area to help fight infection. Antibodies play a special part to fight pathogens as they are ‘lymphocytes that produce antibodies as a result of antigens.’ These are proteins in the group called immunoglobulins. Each antigen will only stimulate the production of one specific antibody that will fit into its receptor area. This is called natural active induced immunity. It is protection gained against a particular pathogen by the production of specific antibodies after the antigen on the pathogen has been detected.’ Pathogens are prevented from entering a host cell by antibodies binding to the antigens which are on the surface of the pathogen, and pathogens can be burst by antibodies activating the complement system. -see diagram here T and B cells are lymphocytes, while t cells mature in the thymus gland and b cells mature in the bone marrow. The point of t cells, is that they are defenders that are activated in the thymus gland and do not actually produce antibodies but do help to protect in other ways. They have helper t cells which recognise antigens especially macrophages that multiply and enlarge and form helper t cells that produce chemicals (interferon) that then stimulate the forming of b cells. Then they stimulate the reproduction of killer t cells. Killer t cells produce and destroy abnormal body cells and release a protein named perforin which form pores in the membranes of the cells they attack and ‘Water and ions from the surroundings flow into the cells and burst them. This is called lysis.’ Suppressor t cells inhibit working after the pathogen is destroyed, and memory t cells survive for a long time and stimulate memory b cells to produce antibodies. B cells work in the lymphatic syste m ‘especially the spleen and lymph nodes’ and work on just one specific antigen and comes into contact with an antigen to then reproduce at a rapid pace which are plasma cells. They are very efficient and effective, but do only last a few days. Most b cells die within a few days like said before, but some do stay alive which are referred to as memory b cells and ‘When the same antigen becomes present in the organism these memory B-cells are already there to begin the production of plasma cells and antibodies.’ Which is secondary B cell response. These are more powerful because they are produced faster, more are produced, and they are produced to a smaller amount of antigen. The primary response of the immune system to infection is on the first time it is encountered and ‘Depending on the nature of the antigen and the site of entry this response can take up to 14 days to resolve and leads to the generation of memory cells with a high specificity for the inducing antigen.’ As soon as a foreign antigen is exposed, an even though no antibodies are produced activated b cells differentiate to plasma cells. Secondary response is the response to the antigen where there is a large production of amounts of antibodies. Memory cells help generate what type of antibodies to produce during an immune response. It is like a B cell that keeps a memory of the older lymphocyte that was generated when there was an immune response for a specific antigen. They act as guardians waiting for the return of the same antigen so they can recruit the immune system and mount an attack sooner and more aggressively. Sources used for this TAQ *Alexander A Ademokun. (2015). Immune Responses: Primary and Secondary. Available: http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000947.html. Last accessed 17th march 2015. *bbc bitesize . (2015). Defending against infection. Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa_pre_2011/human/defendingagainstinfectionrev1.shtml. Last accessed 17th march 2015. *ico praver . (2015). Routes of Transmission. Available: http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/microbes-and-the-human-body/routes-of-transmission . Last accessed 17th march 2015. * S Detea . (2015). secondary response . Available: http://thesciencedictionary.org/secondary-immune-response/. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Immunity Natural Acquired Similarities Resist a specific disease. ‘Inflammation.’ Resist a specific disease. Inflammation.’ Involve the action of antibodies in the body somehow Involve the action of antibodies in the body somehow Technically use white blood cells to try and fight pathogen/ infection Technically use white blood cells to try and fight pathogen/ infection Differences Natural is from birth, and get it from being born and is ‘genetic’. You acquire this immunity after exposure to a pathogen. Remains throughout your life Can be short lived or life long This immunity has barriers that prevent entry of foreign agents Consists of special t and b cells and also antibodies that are in body fluid Response is immediate Response can take a few days, and is not immediate Sources used *Christopher Hassell. (2014). Acquired Immunity. Available: http://greaterimmunity.com/Files/acquired_immunity.html. Last accessed 18th march 2015 *Garland science . (2015). The immune system in health and disease. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27090/. Last accessed 18th march 2015 References and bibliography Alexander A Ademokun. (2015). Immune Responses: Primary and Secondary. Available: http://www.els.net/WileyCDA/ElsArticle/refId-a0000947.html. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Ananya Mandal. (2014). Cholera Transmission. Available: http://www.news-medical.net/health/Cholera-Transmission.aspx. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Arthur Schoenstadt. (2012). Malaria Transmission. Available: http://malaria.emedtv.com/malaria/malaria-transmission.html. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Bbc bitesize. (2015). Defending against infection. Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/aqa_pre_2011/human/defendingagainstinfectionrev1.shtml. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Bbc bitesize. (2015). Whats in a cell?. Available: http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/science/add_edexcel/cells/cells1.shtml. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2014). Influenza. Available: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/keyfacts.htm. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Eric J. Nelson, Jason B. Harris, J. Glenn Morris, Jr, Stephen B. Calderwood Andrew Camilli. (2014). Life cycle of pathogenic Vibrio cholerae.. Available: http://www.nature.com/nrmicro/journal/v7/n10/fig_tab/nrmicro2204_F2.html. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Christopher Hassell. (2014). Acquired Immunity. Available: http://greaterimmunity.com/Files/acquired_immunity.html. Last accessed 18th march 2015 Chris Sherwood. (2015). How Do Viruses Reproduce?. Available: http://www.ehow.com/how-does_4567511_viruses-reproduce.html. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Constantine John Alexopoulos. (2015). Fungus . Available: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/222357/fungus/57967/Nutrition. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Garland science. (2015). The immune system in health and disease. Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27090/. Last accessed 18th march 2015 G gingham. (2014). Bacteria. Available: http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/introducing-microbes/bacteria. Last accessed 17th march 2015 Great Ormond. (2015). Infection prevention and control. Available: http://www.gosh.nhs.uk/parents-and-visitors/coming-to-hospital/infection-control-and-prevention/. Last accessed 18th march 2015. Ico praver. (2015). Routes of Transmission. Available: http://www.microbiologyonline.org.uk/about-microbiology/microbes-and-the-human-body/routes-of-transmission . Last accessed 17th march 2015. Kalyan Das. (2015). Influenza A life cycle.. Available: http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v17/n5/fig_tab/nsmb.1779_F1.html. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Kenneth Todar. (2014). Nutrition and Growth of Bacteria. Available: http://textbookofbacteriology.net/nutgro.html. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Kristeen Cherney. (2014). What is Cross Infection?. Available: http://www.healthline.com/health/cross-infection#Overview1. Last accessed 18th march 2015. Lisa minu. (2014). Understanding Athletes Foot . Available: http://www.webmd.com/skin-problems-and-treatments/guide/understanding-athletes-foot-basics. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Public Health England. (2015). Infection control: New best practice guide will bolster fight against healthcare associated infections See more at: http://www.buildingbetterhealthcare.co.uk/news/article_page/Infection_control_New_. Available: http://www.buildingbetterhealthcare.co.uk/news/article_page/Infection_control_New_best_practice_guide_will_bolster_fight_against_healthcare_associated_infections/71006. Last accessed 18th march 2015 Robert G Yaeger. (2015). Protozoa . Available: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8325/. Last accessed 17th march 2015. S Detea . (2015). Secondary response . Available: http://thesciencedictionary.org/secondary-immune-response/. Last accessed 17th march 2015. Thomas Urbauer. (2014). What Is the Life Cycle of Tinea Pedis? . Available: http://www.ehow.com/about_6513541_life-cycle-tinea-pedis_.html. Last accessed 16th march 2015. Toni Rizzo. (2015). Hospital-Acquired Infections . Available: http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Cross_infection.aspx. Last accessed 18th march 2015 WHO. (2015). 10 facts on cholera. Available: http://www.who.int/features/factfiles/cholera/en/. Last accessed 16th march 2015.

Homework #1 :: essays papers

Homework #1 When I was growing up there were very few computer games that could be used as learning tools. As a child I did have computer class, however this class was used to practice typing or for playing recreational games such as Frogger. When thinking about what to write this paper on I thought of one game that has been on the up rise with children as well as adults. This game is called The SIMS. I thought that this game would be a perfect learning device to teach a variety of important subjects to the age groups ranging from 10-13 years old. My idea is that it would be incorporated in to a family living/economics/home economics class, most likely in a junior high setting. I think it would be best if each student had a computer of their own and worked individually. As their teacher I would pre-set other families for their â€Å"sim† or â€Å"sims† to interact with. In The SIMS you have to create a family. The student can have a single person or a larger family (the limit is eight). The student can choose everything from the color of their skin down to what outfit the character can wear. The next step is to create a personality for your â€Å"sim.† You can choose from a variety of qualities such as cleanliness, kindness and playfulness. Each family starts with $20,000 in the bank. This start up money is used to buy property or a house to live in. Here the students will be taught how to budget their money wisely, because just as in the real world there are extravagant and frivolous things you can purchase in the game. Once the house is set up it is time to look for a job. There are ten job tracks to choose from: business, entertainment, law enforcement, life of crime, medicine, military, politics, pro athlete, science and x-treme. Each of these lets your â€Å"sim† move up in their field if they keep up their training in activities such as cooking, mechanical, charisma, body, logic and creativity. Without keeping up with these tasks your sim cannot keep his/her job. Also important in The SIMS is to interact with other sims. A sim can move in with another sim, date, propose as well as get married (same sex or not). Just as important is keeping to your sims bodily needs such as sleep, hygiene, eating and fun.

The Battle of Crecy :: Essays Papers

The Battle of Crecy The Battle of Crecy is one of several battles fought during the Hundred Years War between England and France. William I was the first to intertwine England and France. He did this by separating his French and English holdings between his two oldest sons, Robert and William II. This led to intermarriage of French and English, which eventually created land disputes, dramatic affairs and inadvertently led to the Hundred Years war and the Battle of Crecy. The Battle of Crecy took place on August 26, 1346. The battle was waged by two kings, the English king, Edward III, the French king Philp VI and their respective armies. The French forces are thought to have consisted of around thirty-six thousand men, including thousands of Geonese from Italy. On the other side the English are suspected of only having around twelve thousand soldiers. Although the English were outnumbered by thousands of French knights they proceeded to savagely defeat the French that day. On the day of the battle the English were in a defensive position awaiting the attack of the French forces at a place known as Crecy Ridge. The English armies were "trained, disciplined, well-armed and confident" meanwhile the Frenchmen and Geonese were "largely untrained, hastily collected and lacking cohesion" (Burne 186). The English were also thought to have had a crude form of a cannon, the first ever used in a battle. They also had excellent archers who easily defeated many of the French cross bowmen and knights from a distance with a longbow. The English win was enormous, and it is said that "Phillip VI fled the battlefield" (Allmand 15). Jean Froissart helped to to sensationalize and romanticize the battle in his "Chronicles of the Hundred Years War". With this work he helped to create legends about the "Black Prince", Edward III's son who first gained honor through the Battle of Crecy. The work idolizes the warriors who fought in the battles and exaggerates the cowardice of the French.

Cognitive Science and Its Link to Artificial Intelligence Essay

Cognitive Science and Its Link to Artificial Intelligence In recent years, researchers in the field of psychology have turned their collective attention to the developing field of cognition. The term comes from the Latin word cognoscere, meaning â€Å"to come to know†, and today is defined by the Merriam-Webster dictionary as â€Å"the act or process of knowing, including both awareness and judgment†. Cognitive psychology seeks to identify and examine the elements composing human intelligence. This includes the study of human learning or intellectual development, problem solving, memory, the human language, and the processing and comprehension of information. These functions are often taken for granted as part of human existence. Yet, when thoroughly investigated, these inner-workings of the human brain reveal patterns, methods, and, in general, a science behind the rather ethereal term â€Å"intelligence†. For this reason, cognitive psychology is of great interest to researchers in the field of artificial intelli gence. If intelligence can be identified in human cognition, then there is a valid chance that that same intelligence can be transferred and re-created in a programmed computer. The development of cognitive psychology has lead to related fields of cognitive neurology, or cognitive neuro-psychology, wherein neurologists study the brain biology behind these cognitive human functions. This paper, however, will not discuss that element of cognition because of its complexity and breadth. Instead, language and problem solving will be highlighted and discussed as two important cognitive functions of humans, and will conclude by discussing the connection between the human mind and artificial intelligence. Language... ...re of Cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts; The MIT Press, 1999. [1] Barsalou, Lawrence W. Cognitive Psychology: An Overview for Cognitive Scientists. New Jersey: London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1992. [2] Reisberg, Daniel. Cognition: Exploring the Science of the Mind. New York: London: W. W. Norton & Company, 1997. [3] Barsalou, Lawrence W. Cognitive Psychology: An Overview for Cognitive Scientists. New Jersey: London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1992. [4] Eysenck, Michael W. A Handbook of Cognitive Psychology. New Jersey: London; Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers, 1984. [5] Johnson-Laird, P.N. The Computer and The Mind. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1988. [6] Sternberg, Robert J., Editor. The Nature of Cognition. Cambridge, Massachusetts; The MIT Press, 1999.

Britain’s Social Policy

Britain’s National Health Service (NHS), set up by the Department of Heath in July 1848 as a healthcare provision, is based on its citizen’s needs not ability to pay. The Department of Health oversees the NHS with funds provided through taxpayers (History of the NHS, n. d. ). Launched as a single organization, the NHS was founded around 14 regional hospital boards in three segments consisting of hospital services; family doctors, dentists, opticians and pharmacists; and local authority health services, including community nursing and health visiting (Ibid).As with any public service agency, changes are imminent. Since 1948, the NHS has undergone major changes in the organizational structure of the agency and in the manner in which patient services are provided. While the NHS proved beneficial to Britain’s citizens, there remained negatives in the program. In spite of improvements and successes, the NHS food was still rationed, building materials were short, and t here was a significant economic crisis and a shortage of fuel. In spite of efforts to improve conditions, the war created a housing crisis in addition to the post-war reconstruction of cities.The New Towns Act (1946) created major new centers of population, but each center was in need of health services. During the period from 1948 to 1957 (History of the NHS), the agency underwent administrative difficulties, financial problems, criticism over minimal fees charges to recipients (e. g. â€Å"a flat rate of ? 1 for ordinary dental treatment†) (Ibid), problems balancing all responsibilities and demands of the government and public, and maintaining medical professional and community health issues. By 1960, the NHS began to see positive changes. The introduction of improved drugs lead to better treatment to citizens.It was during this period that the polio vaccine was introduced along with â€Å"dialysis for chronic renal failure and chemotherapy for certain cancers were develop ed† (NHS, n. d. ). As time progressed, through 1967, problems concerning doctor’s pay arose. However, some of the problems were resolved through the Royal Commission. Like the reformation in pay structures, improved management conditions also became a significant concern. In fact, the NHS introduced a Hospital Activity Analysis to enable medical professionals and managers â€Å"better patient-based information† (NHS, n.d. ). Furthermore, the 1960s brought about a change in segmentation as medical staff was divided into specialty groups, leading to additional criticism (e. g. the 1962 Porritt Report called for unification) (NHS). Also launched in 1962 was Enoch Powell’s Hospital Plan, a ten-year program approving the development of district general hospitals for areas with populations of about 125,000 (NHS), advocating new postgraduate education centers, and giving nurses and doctors a better opportunity for education and future employment and stability.In 1967, recommendations for developing a senior nursing staff structure and moving forward with advancements in hospital management were made in the Salmon Report, while the Cogwheel Report marked the first report on the organization of doctors in hospitals. By 1968, the NHS boasted clinical and organization optimism. However, the optimism was short-lived. Medical progress was notable (e. g. inclusion of endoscopy and Computerized Axial Tomography scanning), including an extension of investigative groups.Also prevalent during the period of 1968 to 1977, transplant surgery became widely used, pharmaceutical improvements were evident, and intensive care units gave the NHS a renewed sense of how medical care would be provided to its citizens. This renewed spirit was short-lived with the mergence of Lassa Fever. The general practice charter encouraged the formation of primary health care teams, new group practice grounds and a rapid increase in the number of health centers.Additionally, t his period saw a change in the Government’s Hospital Plan as new hospitals began to provide even more people with improved and local services. Also indicative of progressive changes is the arrival of information technology through â€Å"health service computerization and clinical budgeting† (NHS). Nevertheless, advancements did not remove the continued debate concerning the organizational structure of the NHS. In 1974, a new system was introduced, but conflict continued combined with an increase in inflation.When inflation reached 26 percent, a wage restraint was enacted. According to the NHS, â€Å"industrial action hit the NHS while consultants were also alienated by proposals to reduce private practice within the service† (NHS, n. d. ). NHS historical sources relate that by 1978 the NHS â€Å"had become a victim of its own success† (n. d. ). Changes were imminent. The introduction of new technology and multifaceted treatment methods led the NHS and its governing forces to realize additional advancements were imperative.By the late 1980s, the NHS reported highly recognized advances, including the areas of primary health care, genetic engineering, successful drug advancements, and the introduction of the MRI of which the agency states: â€Å"the number of operations for fractured neck or femur and osteoarthritis of the hip was reaching almost epidemic proportions†¦increasing numbers of heart and liver transplants were being performed and surgical treatment for heart disease was becoming more common† (n. d. ).In spite of the positive changes, the NHS continued to face on constant dilemma –financial stability. Increasing demand for services exceeded the resources available, leading to the mandated audit process of what NHS professionals were doing. By 1987, the NHS’s medical staff was in debt (NHS, n. d. ), waiting lists were increasing, and hospital wards were being closed (n. d. ). The NHS reports the peri od of 1988 to 1997 as its â€Å"most significant cultural shift since its inception with the introduction of the so-called internal market† (NHS, n. d. ).A 1989 White Paper, Working for Patients, was passed into law (Community Care Act 1990). Leading up to the beginning of the 1990s, the NHS saw the emergence of the internal market while health organizations became NHS trusts (independent, competing organizations with their own managements). By 1991, the NHS reported 57 Trusts, with all care provided by Trust at the end of 1995. All of the changes marked what the agency calls the â€Å"New NHS† and defines this change as â€Å"modern, dependable† (NHS, n. d. ). The new NHS operates under â€Å"six principles† of which include:†¢ The renewal of the NHS as a genuinely national service, offering fair access to consistently high quality, prompt and accessible services right across the country; †¢ To make the delivery of healthcare against these new national standards a matter of local responsibility, with local doctors and nurses in the driving seat in shaping services; †¢ To get the NHS to work in partnership, breaking down organizational barriers and forging stronger links with local authorities; †¢ To drive efficiency through a more rigorous approach to performance, cutting bureaucracy to maximize every pound spent in the NHS for the care of patients;†¢ To shift the focus onto quality of care so that excellence would be guaranteed to all patients, with quality the driving force for decision-making at every level of the service; †¢ To rebuild public confidence in the NHS as a public service, accountable to patients, open to the public and shaped by their views. (â€Å"Six Principles†) Of all influences on the changes in the social policies of Britain the NHS and Community Care Act 1990 has had the greatest impact. In fact, before the Act, most of Britain’s health and public services were pla nned and provided by health and local authorities (Commissioning the New NHS, 1998).The Act divided the role of health and local authorities by changing their internal structure thereby giving local authority departments responsibility for assessing the needs of the local population and then purchasing the necessary services from providers (1998). However, under the terms of the Act, a select number of health and social services authorities opted out of what would mean competing with other providers to work together in other sections of the community (e. g. voluntary groups and housing associations) (1998).Under a â€Å"mixed economy of care† (NHS), social policies evolved to also include a service specification inviting providers to â€Å"tender for the contract to provide those services† (Commissioning the New NHS, 1998). This mixed economy was intended as a tool to give citizens a variety of health care choices. However, according the Department of Heath’s re port (1998): Some local authorities chose to purchase services as part of a ‘block contract’ (where a certain service is provided for a fixed price and a fixed length of time).Purchasing services in this way may actually reduce choice for the individual, as frequently no alternatives (outside those provided by the block contract) are made available. Key Elements of Housing Policy Post-war housing policy is believed to have been a â€Å"notable success† (Ball, 1983). Since the days following the war, the physical housing situation in Britain has improved dramatically. In the period of the 1950s to 1980, Britain had seen a significant net gain of 200-250,000 dwellings each year (p. 2).In fact, Ball (1983) reports that â€Å"millions of slums have been demolished† and â€Å"thousands of other dwellings have been renovated to [meet] modern standards† (1983). Britain’s housing conditions have seen a significant improvement, specifically into the 1 980s. In fact, the change was so dramatic that less than 5 percent of dwellings were overcrowded. Improvements in housing includes the inclusion of a bath/shower and an inside toilet. Of all policies in post-war Britain, the 1977 Housing Policy Review was the best moment of all changes in housing provision.By the early 1980s, however, satisfaction disappeared and a growing housing crisis became a concern once again. According to Ball (1983), Britain’s post-war housing record has been poor compared with other West European countries. While all experienced a housing boom from the late 1950s to the early 1970s, Britain’s population size resulted in its trailing behind other countries’ house building rates (see Table 1), most predominately those with a similar welfare state social democratic tradition. Key elements of the housing policies includes the Department of Health’s responsibilities to:†¢ Identify local market information on the supply of housing , care and support services for older and disabled people; †¢ Access support on developing and implementing regional and local housing with care action plans; †¢ Obtain advice on public and private sector capital and revenue streams to inform business investment decisions; †¢ Disseminate guidance on the DH’s Extra Care Housing fund and grant allocation arrangements; †¢ Facilitate the adaptation of good practice to local settings; †¢ Support successful applicants with the development process and share their learning with unsuccessful applicants;†¢ Access knowledge management tools to support practice development and service improvement. †¢ Secure funding to research, test and evaluate new and innovative models of housing with care solutions support; †¢ Offer training and consultancy resources to support service development and change management processes; and †¢ Convene regional LIN meetings to identify and share what works (Departm ent of Health, 2007). According to Gummer (2005), in the 25 years since the UK’s â€Å"right to buy† housing policy, approximately 2 million families have become homeowners, changing the way Britain’s housing policies and market is perceived.The â€Å"right to buy† policy opened opportunity to â€Å"a whole new group† giving them â€Å"a stake in the community that they had never had before† (p. 69). However, in spite of the positive changes, Gummer (2005) reports that Britain continues to receive criticism with the most cited concern being â€Å"that the sale of council houses means there is a shortage of homes to let† (p. 69). Contrary to the positives, negative critism has surfaced, including a Contract Journal article (Penny, 2005) stating that â€Å"social housing schemes could be about to receive a much-needed shot in the arm — as well as a much-needed boost from the private sector† (p.40). Penny (2005) argues the impracticability of Britain’s urging to commit to a social housing PFI. â€Å"Unless you know exactly what you are taking on, anyone involved in such a scheme could be taking a huge risk,† argues Penny (p. 40). The author, among others, believe that the proposed new NHS LIFT approach indicates the public sector retains an interest in the scheme of which Penny also argues will â€Å"sidestep tenants’ objections to being put into the hands of a firm being run solely to generate profit† (Ibid).Despite obvious objections, the Contract Journal (Penny, 2005) does see positive aspects of moving to NHS LIFT-style management and asserts that a move flexible program would benefit the public in more ways than better housing alone. Based on references concerning LIFT-style initiatives (NHS LIFT Guidance, 2007; Penny, 2005; Millet, 2005) the program addresses almost all concerns in social housing, including the continued coverage of health and schools. As time progres ses, Britain’s housing policy changes continue to be focus of debates on just how much of the changes are for the good of citizens and how much is political agenda.One must question the validity of various housing programs, including the current and forthcoming plans for housing for the elderly. One such program is the Wanless Telecare proposal (Housing LIN Policy Briefing, 2006) that the Audit Commission defines as â€Å"any service that brings health and social care directly to a user, generally in their own homes, supported by communication and information technology. Data is collected through sensors, fed into a home hub and sent electronically to a monitoring center† (2006, p.1). According to the Briefing document (2006), Britain’s government believes the Telecare program can help older people to remain in their homes for longer (p. 1). However, while the program proposal defines the costs associated with implementing the program as â€Å"modest† (20 06, p. 2), they are high, specifically to the homeowner. The set up fee of a basic home safety package costs about ? 360 plus monitoring costs of ? 5 per week. Home health monitoring is more expensive, around ? 700 and ? 10 per week monitoring costs.Given these high figures, combined with the already luminous housing problems with the elderly, how can such a program benefit citizens? According to the Audit Commission’s review of the Telecare housing safety program, â€Å"Telecare equipment and services provide the opportunity to react to hazardous events and to alert and prevent deterioration in an individual’s ability to care for themselves† (2006, p. 3). One specific pilot study (West Lothian: Opening Doors for Older People, 1999 quoted in Department of Health White Paper, 2006) for the inclusion of Telecare surveyed 10,000 households in the West Lothian district age 60 or over.The survey purpose was to reveal the validity of Telecare inclusion as a possible m eans of â€Å"reengineering† services for older people to include the development of extra care housing and changes to home care services. According to the survey, implementing Telecare on its own without wider system improvements is a wasted opportunity. In fact, the survey revealed: †¢ Telecare is not a cut price alternative to personal care, but sits alongside it †¢ A technology driven approach does not work †¢ A focus on cost saving/shunting does not work †¢ A high level of commitment at senior level is required†¢ West Lothian has found ‘minimal interest’ from the local NHS in telecare/telemedicine possibilities (Department of Health, 2006; Audit Commission, 2004; Brownsell et al, 2001). Understanding the changes in Britain’s housing policy since 1979 enables its citizens to better equip themselves for what future changes may come. In fact, Britain’s housing policies have fluctuated, indicating a positive change and decl ining to criticism and little faith of its citizens. While the government is consistently working toward bettering its housing policies, there remains many avenues yet to be explored. References:Audit Commission (2004). Older People: Implementing Telecare. London: Audit Commission. Ball, M. (1983). Housing Policy and Economic Power: The Political Economy of Owner Occupation. Methuen: London. Brownsell, S et al (2001). An attributable cost model for a telecare system using advanced community alarms. Journal of Telecare and Telemedicine, Volume 7. _______________ (1998). Commissioning the new NHS, 1999/2000. Department of Health, HSC (98) 198. Department of Health (2007). Official website. Crown, retrieved January 11, 2007 from http://www. dh. gov. uk/Home/fs/en Department of Health White Paper (2006).Our health, our care, our say: a new vision for community services. London: The Stationery Office. Gummer, J. (2005, Nov 5). â€Å"Right to buy† was the right move for everyone. E states Gazette, Issue 544, 69. Millet, C. (2005, Oct 10). Social housing set for LIFT-style deals. Contract Journal, Vol. 430 Issue 6545, 1. ______________ (2007). NHS LIFT Guidance. Crown, retrieved January 10, 2007 from http://www. dh. gov. uk/ProcurementAndProposals/PublicPrivatePartnership/NHSLIFT/N HSLIFTGuidance/fs/en Penny, E. (2005, Oct 10). Editor’s Comment. Contract Journal, Vol. 430 Issue 6545, 40. United Nations Statistical Yearbook 1978